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Volume 4, Issue 2 (2025)Read More

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Article
15 May 2025

Diverse Minds: Exploring Individual Differences in Visual Imagery and Special Cases

Kay DeKock
Mental imagery, or more specifically, visual imagery, plays a significant role in human life. For this reason, this paper aims to examine the many aspects of visual imagery with a special focus on inherent differences between individuals. This paper explores the idea of what visual imagery is and how it is represented, from the in-between of the spectrum of visual imagery, to the extreme ends, where lies the conditions of aphantasia and hyperphantasia. This paper covers the core cognitive processes involved in visual imagery and the parts of the brain responsible for them. The idea of measurement and assessment is also delved into, and the issues with current measurement techniques discussed, including self-report measures and performance-based tests. Highlighting gaps in the current research, this paper calls for more research aimed at understanding individual differences within all aspects of visual imagery. Finally, the application of visual imagery into settings such as education, clinical, and cognitive psychological research is discussed.
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Current Articles

Article12 January 2026

Lucy Wortham James and the Gospel of Wealth: A Case Study of Female Philanthropy in Rural Missouri During the Progressive Era

Jacob Rinehart
Various historical scholars have examined the role of Andrew Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth on philanthropic attitudes and endeavors of affluent Americans during the Progressive Era. Modern developments, driven by post-structural feminist theory, have shown that rural-born Missouri women, exemplified by Phoebe Apperson Hearst, acted as complementary equals to Carnegie through their humanitarian efforts by uniquely interpreting and implementing his social doctrines. However, the existing scholarship has focused substantially on coastal developments, neglecting the role of this benevolence in rural Missouri communities. By examining the philanthropic endeavors of Lucy Wortham James, both during her life and post-mortem through her endowment of the James Foundation of the New York Community Trust, I will demonstrate how her philanthropic endeavors classify her as a complementary equal to Carnegie and that the Gospel of Wealth Ideas prominent on both the East and West coasts during the Progressive Era were made relevant, by James, to her rural hometown of St James, Missouri.
Article12 January 2026

A Tiny Battle: Conflict, Structure, and Satire in "The Rape of the Lock"

Helen Ball
Writing in London during the eighteenth-century, the poet Alexander Pope earned an enduring reputation in literary canon as a master of satire. His well-loved poem The Rape of the Lock exemplifies his biting wit and characteristically satirical heroic rhyme couplets. In my article, I use a formalist literary approach to examine Pope's stylistic, literary, and rhetorical strategies throughout the climactic third canto of the poem. Performing a close reading, this essay analyzes the intricacies of the poem through its use of diction, rhyme, and dramatic subject matter, ultimately arguing that Pope achieves a complex balance of satirizing and sympathizing with the characters in his poem.
Article12 January 2026

Evaluating Lunch Plan Data in the St. Charles School District (SCSD)

Maddy Alexander, Guillermo Bilbao Olarreaga, Duncan Krige, Alyssa Schreiber, Nick Wintz, Wojciech Golik
The SCSD is a public school district in St. Charles, with, on average, 4500 students a year. The SCSD is subdivided into an early childhood center, six elementary schools, two intermediate (5-6,7-8) schools, and two high schools. Vocational schools are also within this district but were not included in this report. The SCSD is concerned with the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on their district’s population and on the number of students that needed assistance with lunch. They have asked Lindenwood’s 2024-25 PIC Math group to analyze their data from the years 2020-25 and identify any trends. Identifying these trends may help the client understand which areas in the school district are most likely to need financial aid, and which locations were most greatly impacted by the pandemic. So far, the group has analyzed the data to understand the retention rates and distribution of meal statuses and student populations across the 5-year period, as well as using ArcGIS and R programming software to generate various graphs and maps of the SCSD area. We focused our analysis and observations on these key areas employing statistical and data analysis skills to draw our conclusions.
Article12 January 2026

A Comparative Analysis of Eyewitness Testimony Accuracy: Victims Versus Bystanders

Allyson Phillips
Eyewitness testimony is a vital yet fallible component of the criminal justice system. This study investigates differences in eyewitness testimony accuracy between two witness types: victims and bystanders, adding to the scarce literature regarding the subject. Participants were assigned to either the Victim or Bystander Group and participated in a memory test. During the memory test, a staged intruder entered the room and stole either a gift card belonging to the participant (Victim Group) or me (Bystander Group). Following the theft, participants were given an eyewitness testimony survey and photo lineup to assess their memory of the theft and intruder. Results indicated that there is no difference in eyewitness testimony accuracy, t(22) = -0.05, p = 0.48, d = 0.02, or intruder identification accuracy, (n = 24) = 0.51, p = 0.11, between victims and bystanders. Limitations, such as the Victim Group participants’ weak emotional attachment to the gift card, may have influenced the results. However, secondary analyses revealed a significant difference in memory of the intruder’s utterance between witness types, indicating the Bystander Group’s memory of the auditory stimuli were more accurate than the Victim Group’s memory, χ² (n = 24) = 6.769, p = .009. These findings contribute to the broader understanding of eyewitness memory accuracy to help inform the criminal justice system.

Most Popular Articles

Article
24 August 2021

The Lilith Challenge

Sarah Goldblum
Lilith, the female demon, is found all over ancient Babylonian mythology. She is not unique to Jewish folklore but was a part of ancient Babylonian and Assyrian mythology prior to the time of the Rabbis. In this paper, I will explore how her myth is incorporated into Judaism to help explain why evil happens to people who unwilfully sin. I will explore the cultivation and connection between the demon Lilith in the Jewish tradition, drawing from the Talmudic sources, a separate story in the Alphabet of Ben Sira, and the relation to evil. The Alphabet of Ben Sira was written after the Babylonian Talmud: “The Alphabet of Ben Sira is a medieval popular book with a pseudpigraphic character. Its exact date is still a matter of dispute. The majority of experts believe that it was written sometime between the ninth and tenth centuries.”[1] [https://lindenwood0-my.sharepoint.com/personal/ntorbitzky_lindenwood_edu/Documents/Confluence%20S%202021/0104282021-final.docx#_ftn1] This, and the Talmudic midrash about Lilith, were eventually picked up by popular Judaism. In this paper, I follow the development of the Lilith mythology, her beginning as an evil mother goddess, changing to a desert demon, to a baby killer, then to a succubus, and lastly as an explanation of Adam’s first wife in the book of Genesis, which serves as a bases for the Alphabet of Ben Sira.
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Article
14 November 2022

Shades of Emotion: Color and Emotion Study

Sydney Beins
The present study investigated a connection between color combinations, saturation, and emotions. This study collected data from 87 participants from social media sites and the Lindenwood Participant Pool. Participants were asked two sets of questions on an Online Qualtrics survey. The first set exposed participants to images varying in color scheme and saturation and asked them to indicate their emotional reactions toward the images. The second set of questions contained demographic questions. The finding revealed there to be a connection between emotional responses based on color scheme and saturation but not based on both factors. The implications of these findings can help create spaces for individuals in institutions that increase positive emotions and help inspire further research on color combinations and emotions.
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Article
14 November 2022

Michelangelo Buonarroti and Homophobia in the Renaissance

Grace Ray
Tommaso de’ Cavalieri was a young man with an aristocratic background when he first met famous artist Michelangelo Buonarroti in Rome. Tommaso was known to be an incomparable physical beauty, with intelligence and elegant manners, as well as being a member of one of the most illustrious families of Rome—the Orsini. Some have said this is what drew the artist to Cavalieri from the start. Though not much is known about their encounter, it is confirmed that Cavalieri remained a close and loyal companion to Michelangelo for thirty-two years until the artist’s death in 1564. Furthermore, throughout their years together as friends, there passed between them several letters and even a collection of drawings which contain scenes of suggested homoeroticism. Some scholars have stated that Tommaso became the object of Michelangelo’s affection, his muse, and the inspiration for the letters, drawings, and numerous poems. Given the artist’s contested sexuality, the nature of these drawings and the men’s relationship has been examined by numerous art historians. The drawings consisted of classical motifs and narratives which exhibit themes of ecstasy and punishment for partaking in something forbidden. In other words, the drawings present scenes which illustrate giving into something and a subsequent consequence. Additionally, given the homoerotic nature of the drawings, the conclusion would be that homosexuality is the “forbidden fruit” which Michelangelo refers to, and therefore would indicate Michelangelo subconsciously harbored internalized homophobia. This would further indicate a proposed or failed romantic attachment which could not be sustained with the artist’s own internalized homophobia, produced by restrictive laws and a largely Christian society of sixteenth century Italy. Michelangelo Buonarroti gave Tommaso a multitude of drawings, including, The Rape of Ganymede, The Punishment of Tityus, The Fall of Phaethon, The Children’s Bacchanal and The Dream, as well as letters and poetry to communicate certain messages to Tommaso, such as his affections for the young man in a society which had cultivated internalized homophobia for the artist.
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Article
18 December 2023

The Influence of High Renaissance Art on the Mannerist Movement: Examining Representative Works of Rosso Fiorentino, Pontormo, and Bronzino

Jana Ondrechen Hallford
This paper explores the impact of the High Renaissance, led by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, on the development of the Mannerist movement. Specifically, it examines the ways in which three prominent Mannerist artists, Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino, and Bronzino, built upon the "ideal" art produced during the High Renaissance. Through a comparative analysis of works by the "three greats" of the High Renaissance and those of the three Mannerist artists, this paper identifies similarities and differences in style, composition, and subject matter. It also considers broader cultural influences that contributed to the development of Mannerism. The paper argues that the rules that Leonardo and Michelangelo broke, and the contributions they, along with Raphael, made to the rising status of the artist, paved the way for the innovations of the Mannerist phase. Ultimately, this paper demonstrates the ways in which the High Renaissance substantially changed art and made the Mannerist movement possible.
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Article
27 June 2024

To what extent did Karl Marx's political thought influence the Occupy Wall Street Movement in the 21st Century?

Madalyn Schroeder
The research will investigate the intriguing influences of Karl Marx’s political thought and the Occupy Wall Street movement that came to be in the 21st Century. The study looks to measure the depth and significance of Marx’s influence on a modern sociopolitical movement driven by economic inequality and social justice concerns. By taking a multidisciplinary approach that combines political theory, social activism analysis, and historical context, this investigation shows the extent to which Marx’s ideas informed the ideological foundation and strategies of the Occupy Wall Street movement. By looking through primary sources, protest literature, and the discourse of the movement, this research provides a variated understanding of how Marxist political thought, which originated in the 19th century, is seen within a 21st-century movement, thus contributing to a broader comprehension of the dynamic relationship between historical ideas and contemporary activism. The findings of this study work to create a deeper understanding of the relevance of Marxist thought in the pursuit of economic and social justice, as well as showing its continued influence on the modern sociopolitical landscape.
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